-
全球能源危机和环境污染的加剧使得储能技术的发展受到了相当大的关注[1]。锂离子电池(lithium-ion battery, LIB)作为具潜力和竞争力的储能技术之一,以其能量密度高、自放电率低、无记忆效应、应用温度范围广和环境友好等诸多优点[2],被广泛应用于通信(3C便携电子设备[3]、5G基站[4])、交通(动力/混动车[5])、军事(无人机[6])、医疗(植入器官[7])和大型储能领域(清洁能源电网系统[8])等。随着锂离子电池应用范围扩大,社会供求量逐年急速增长[9]。2019年,锂离子电池的全球出货量约达163 GW·h[10],随着锂离子电池在各领域应用规模的进一步扩大,市场需求将持续上升,预计2025年全球产量将超过439 GW·h[11]。同时,据锂离子电池的寿命(动力车5~8 a,3C设备2~3 a)预测,至2020年我国将产生约5.0×108 kg的废旧锂离子电池。由于先进能源材料的开发和储能硬件的更新换代,而产生的大量废旧电池又将带来新的问题和挑战。
资源性与危险性并存是锂离子电池的典型特征。尽管锂离子电池不含Hg、Cd、Pb等毒害性较大的重金属元素,然而也并非绝对的无污染,破损电池中电解液会在空气中蒸发形成含水分的HF气体。不像铅酸电池已经形成完善的回收模式,事实上,95%的废锂离子电池由于回收难度和成本问题没有得到妥善处置,若这些大量废旧电池不被合理处置,会严重浪费宝贵资源,也会对人群健康、环境带来重大风险[12-13]。此外,锂离子电池的初次生产[14-16]和原材料的加工过程[17]对环境亦有破坏性影响,如锂元素的开采需要大量矿砂、矿藏或含矿物卤水。相比于初次生产,开采1 t原料需要开采近250 t矿砂,而再生产仅需回收约28 t废旧电池[14-16, 18]。废锂离子电池不仅含有锂元素,还含有大量价值材料,尤其是正极部分被认为是锂电体系中最具经济价值的部分[19-20]。正极材料主要是一元或多元含锂的活性物质[21],所含的Li、Co、Ni和Mn等价值金属元素远高于一般矿砂[22]。而作为集流体的铜箔、铝箔也极具回收价值。因此,锂离子电池的绿色资源化回收与高效再利用对环境保护、人类健康、经济和资源保护都有重要意义。
近年来,研究人员在开发高性能锂离子电池电极材料方面作出了巨大努力。然而,目前商用锂离子电池以及下一代可充电电池的可持续性问题却并没有得到高度的重视,而且尚缺乏正极材料绿色高效资源化回收再利用技术的系统总结。ZHANG等[23-24]总结了锂电池的主流回收工艺,即湿法冶金工艺,介绍了工艺方法、生命周期评价及金属分离层次等方面的内容。HUANG等[25]对该工艺后续的电池再制造进行了归纳。KIM等[26]对韩国废电池的处理及其材料的流动进行了分析。BOXALL等[27]对澳大利亚在锂电回收方面的创新潜力进行了评价。ZENG等[28]对废旧锂电池回收利用的现状和问题进行了简单概括,但尚未形成完善的体系并缺少对资源化回收过程中能耗、环境影响的评估。目前,对于正极材料资源化回收再利用的综述,仍局限于对于传统主流方法的总结,而忽略了对先进技术的探索与引进。传统主流工艺尽管较为成熟,但其繁琐低效、耗能耗材及不可避免的二次污染问题,是推进高效回收工作的瓶颈,也是制约废旧锂离子电池回收产业化发展的重要因素。
本文从实验室基础研究到工业应用的视角,梳理了废旧锂离子电池的正极材料资源化回收再利用的研究现状及问题,着重分析了以微波热处理为核心的先进便捷技术在回收过程中的应用及优势,通过能耗、效率、经济性、功能性和环境影响等诸多方面比较,总结了微波热处理技术在优化杂质降解、强化碳热还原、提升浸出效率、再生材料过程中的显著优势和发展潜力,旨在为锂离子电池正极材料回收处理行业的未来发展以及3R[21]和4H[11]绿色高效的能源材料回收体系的构建提供参考。
微波技术在锂离子电池正极材料高效回收再利用中的研究进展
Microwave-assisted recycling perspectives on valuable cathode active materials for lithium ion batteries: An overview
-
摘要: 随着储能市场的快速发展,锂离子电池供求量不断攀升,废旧电池数量也随之大幅增长。废弃电池的不当处置将危及人类健康、阻碍环境和资源的可持续发展,而对其进行资源化回收再利用,尤其是回收其中具有高附加值的正极材料,有利于实现社会、经济、环境等层面的多重效益。对比总结了废旧锂电正极材料传统回收利用工艺的现状和问题,梳理了新兴微波辅助技术在材料回收及资源化利用过程中的应用和研究进展。微波技术由于其独特的加热机制在优化杂质降解、强化碳热还原、提升浸出效率、再生材料等诸多方面体现出显著优势和发展潜力。基于实际问题和数值模拟总结了微波处理技术的局限性,并提出了改进策略,以期对锂电回收体系的改良和发展提供参考。Abstract: With the rapid development of energy storage market, the supply and demand of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as well as the discard have continued to increase in recent years. Waste LIBs, if not handled properly, will endanger human health, the environment and the sustainable development of resources. However, recycling and regeneration of LIBs, especially the positive materials with high added value, can achieve multiple benefits in social, economic and environmental aspects. In this paper, the research status and problems of the conventional methods and the new microwave-assisted technology for recycling and regeneration processes of waste cathode materials are reviewed. Owing to the unique thermal mechanism, microwave technology shows significant advantages and potentials in optimizing impurity degradation, strengthening carbothermal reduction, improve the efficiency of leaching, regenerating active materials and other aspects. Meanwhile, limitations and improved strategies are summarized based on practical problems and numerical simulations, proving guidance and reference for the improvement and development of LIB recovery system in the future.
-
Key words:
- lithium-ion battery /
- cathode material /
- waste treatment /
- recovery /
- regeneration /
- microwave
-
表 1 锂电相关材料在2.45 GHz微波场下的吸波性能
Table 1. Microwave-absorbing properties of materials under the frequency of 2.45 GHz
物质 温度T/℃ 介电常数 $ \varepsilon {'} $ 损耗因子 $ \varepsilon {'}{'} $ 损耗正切 $ \mathrm{tan}\delta $ 微波穿透深度DP/mm 文献 LMO/carbon 25 7.60 0.20 0.026 3 258.9 [39] MnO2/coal 25 5.85 0.146 0.024 9 — [40] MnO/coal 550 4.27 0.009 4 0.002 2 — [40] NCM/carbon 25 4.99 0.61 0.122 2 71 [38] Co@CoO 25 12 0.24 0.02 — [41] 常规碳 17 7 2 0.285 7 26 [42] 焦炭 25 10.10 2.45 0.242 6 16.41 [42] 聚苯乙烯 25 2.55 0.000 8 0.000 3 76 193 [43] 聚氯乙烯 25 2.85 0.016 0.005 6 4028 [43] 表 2 集流体在2.45 GHz微波场下的吸波性能
Table 2. Microwave-absorbing properties of the current collector under the frequency of 2.45 GHz
表 3 实验室锂离子电池脱箔解离预处理过程中常用的方法及优缺点
Table 3. Conventional laboratory methods and their advantages and disadvantages in the pretreatment of lithium-ion batteries
表 4 锂离子电池间接回收正极材料活性物质中常用的方法及优缺点
Table 4. Conventional methods of indirect recovery of valuable substances from lithium-ion battery cathode materials and their advantages and disadvantages
表 5 传统和微波辅助热法冶金在正极材料碳热还原过程中的研究
Table 5. Conventional and MW-assisted pyrometallurgical in the carbothermic reduction process researches
序号 正极材料 加热方式 最优条件 质量损失/% 饱和磁化强度/
(emu·g−1)回收率/% 总产率/% 文献 1 LCO
LNMO
LMO传统加热
600~900 ℃
30~60 min30% C;885 ℃;
59 min31.6 106.6 Li:82.7;Co:95;
Mn:70;
Ni:2546.2 [96] 2 LCO
LNMO
LMO微波加热
540~900 W
2.5~10 min24.4% C;870 W;
7.8 min21 90.7 Li:82;Co:70;
Mn:21;
Ni:4131.9 [96] 3 LCO
LNMO
LMO微波加热
180~900 W
5~15 min25% C;900 W;
8 min21.5 91 Li:82;Co:69;
Mn:20;
Ni:4331.4 [93] 4 LCO 传统加热
600~1 100 ℃
30~60 min41% C;800 ℃
45 min24.8 128.1 Li:89.8;Co:94.1 36.8 [97] 5 LCO 微波加热
180~900 W
5~15 min25% C;900 W
8 min20 80 Li:88;Co:78 34.7 [93] 注:序号1、序号2的最优解基于Box-Behnken数值模型,序号4的最优解基于Jandler/Intherface数值模型;C表示从负极纯化的石墨,石墨含量试验范围为10%~50%。 表 6 20 g LiCoO2在每升溶剂中浸出过程的近似成本估算[107]
Table 6. Approximate cost ($) estimation in the Indian context for the leaching processes of 20 g LiCoO2 in 1 L of solvent[107]
美元 工艺过程 酸剂耗费 还原剂耗费 热能耗费 人力耗费 总计 传统加热工艺 0.18 0.27 0.125 0 14.1 14.675 微波辅助加热工艺 0.18 0.27 0.006 5 0.97 1.4265 注:工业平均电价为每千瓦时0.08美元。 表 7 废旧锂离子电池间接再生正极材料活性物质的常见方法及其优缺点
Table 7. Methods of indirect regeneration of lithium-ion battery cathode materials and their advantages and disadvantages
再生方法 优势 缺陷 文献 固相法 工艺简单,常用于工业 处理温度高,能耗较大,时耗较长,
再生材料粒径分布不均匀,稳定性较差[137] 水热法 反应温度较低,能耗低,设备简单,所得材料纯度高,
颗粒小及分散均匀反应设备要求较高,溶剂对再生材料
具有还原性,工业应用受限[135-136] 沉淀法 金属离子混合和分布均匀,可达原子尺度,纯度、颗粒
大小可控,再生材料性能优异,工艺简单,利于工业化沉淀过程的影响因素较多,容易产生
杂质共沉淀[108-109, 139] 溶胶-
凝胶法化学计量比精确,材料分布均匀,处理时间较短,
处理温度较低,能耗小重复性较差,干燥收缩度大,合成周期较长,
成本高,大规模工业应用受限[140-141] 微波法 反应温度可控,能耗低,加热速度快,反应时间短,
污染小,操作简单,工业化应用具有前景有副反应发生,反应机理研究不够深入,目前
研究限制在实验室的较小规模应用上[142] 注:其他方法还包括喷雾热分解法、流变相反应法、超临界技术、低热固相法等。 表 8 微波法制备正极材料活性物质的对比
Table 8. Comparative chart of microwave-synthesized lithium-ion battery cathode compounds
序号 合成物 方法 试验条件 比容量/(mA·h·g−1) 充电倍率 文献 1 LiCoO2 微波焙烧法 800 ℃, 10 min 140 1.33 C [147] 2 LiCoO2 微波焙烧法 425 W, 5 min;850 W, 10 min 125 0.10 C [148] 3 LiMn2O4 微波焙烧法 0~1 kW, 2.45 GHz — — [149] 4 LiMn2O4 微波诱导燃烧法 650 W, 30 min,800 ℃, 8 h 133 0.33 C [150] 5 LiMn2O4 微波辅助溶胶凝胶法 650 W, 10 min;1200 W, 10 min750 ℃, 6 h 120 0.33 C [145] 6 LiMn2O4 流变相辅助微波合成法 搅拌2 h;750 ℃, 2 h 115 0.33 C [151] 7 LiFePO4 微波焙烧法 500 W, 20 min;Ar气氛 95(25 ℃) 0.17 C [152] 8 Li4Ti5O12 混合微波合成法 160、320、480、640 W,每种功率5 min 115 0.17 C [153] 9 LiCr0.1Mn1.9O4 微波诱导燃烧法 650 W, 30 min,800 ℃, 8 h 120 0.33 C [154] 10 LiCo0.1Mn1.9O4 微波辅助燃烧法 650 W, 30 min,800 ℃, 8 h 118 0.33 C [154-155] 11 LiNi0.4Co0.2Mn0.4O4 微波焙烧法 1 200 W, 10 min 195 0.2 C [156] -
[1] DENG S J, ZHU H, WANG G Z, et al. Boosting fast energy storage by synergistic engineering of carbon and deficiency[J]. Nature Communications, 2020, 11(1): 1-11. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-13993-7 [2] ZHANG L S, WANG H, WANG L Z, et al. High electrochemical performance of lithium-rich Li1.2Mn0.54NixCoyO2 cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Materials Letters, 2016, 185: 100-103. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2016.08.118 [3] BHATLU M L D, BHAUMIK M, SUKANYA K. Energy management by using lithium-ion batteries, piezo materials, sensors and renewal energy system in the daily life: A review[J]. Journal of Critical Reviews, 2020, 7(7): 798-801. doi: 10.31838/jcr.07.07.146 [4] NAKAMURA M, TAKENO K. Green base station using robust solar system and high performance lithium ion battery for next generation wireless network (5G) and against mega disaster[C]//IEEE. 2018 International Power Electronics Conference (IPEC-Niigata 2018 -ECCE Asia). Niigata, Japan, 2018: 201-206. [5] CHOUDHARI V G, DHOBLE D A S, SATHE T M. A review on effect of heat generation and various thermal management systems for lithium ion battery used for electric vehicle[J]. Journal of Energy Storage, 2020, 32: 101729. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2020.101729 [6] DEPCIK C, CASSADY T, COLLICOTT B, et al. Comparison of lithium ion batteries, hydrogen fueled combustion engines, and a hydrogen fuel cell in powering a small unmanned aerial vehicle[J]. Energy Conversion and Management, 2020, 207: 112514. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2020.112514 [7] LI P F, BASHIRULLAH R. A wireless power interface for rechargeable battery operated medical implants[J]. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs, 2007, 54(10): 912-916. doi: 10.1109/TCSII.2007.901613 [8] CHEN T M, JIN Y, LV H, et al. Applications of lithium-ion batteries in grid-scale energy storage systems[J]. Transactions of Tianjin University, 2020, 26(3): 208-217. doi: 10.1007/s12209-020-00236-w [9] ZHENG Y, SONG W, MO W T, et al. Lithium fluoride recovery from cathode material of spent lithium-ion battery[J]. RSC Advances, 2018, 8(16): 8990-8998. doi: 10.1039/C8RA00061A [10] 东莞市钜大电子有限公司. 2020年全球动力锂离子电池行业市场现状及发展前景分析[EB/OL]. (2020-05-02) [2020-09-20]. http://www.juda.cn/news/134330.html. [11] FAN E S, LI L, WANG Z P, et al. Sustainable recycling technology for Li-ion batteries and beyond: Challenges and future prospects[J]. Chemical Reviews, 2020, 120(14): 7020-7063. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00535 [12] YUAN Y, YU H X, CHENG X, et al. Preparation of TiNb6O17 nanospheres as high-performance anode candidates for lithium-ion storage[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2019, 374: 937-946. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2019.05.225 [13] DIEKMANN J, HANISCH C, FROBÖSE L, et al. Ecological recycling of lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles with focus on mechanical processes[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2016, 164(1): A6184-A6191. [14] MESHRAM P, PANDEY B D, MANKHAND T R. Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: A comprehensive review[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2014, 150: 192-208. doi: 10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.10.012 [15] TEDJAR F. Approach of “Electrodes to Electrodes”: Challenges for recycling advanced lithium-ion batteries for e-mobility[C]//IOP Publishing. 2014 ECS Meeting Abstracts. Como, Italy, 2014: 396. [16] LAROUCHE F, TEDJAR F, AMOUZEGAR K, et al. Progress and status of hydrometallurgical and direct recycling of Li-ion batteries and beyond[J]. Materials, 2020, 13(3): 801. doi: 10.3390/ma13030801 [17] KATWALA A. The spiralling environmental cost of our lithium battery addiction[EB/OL]. [2018-08-05]. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impact, 2018. [18] LARCHER D, TARASCON J M. Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy storage[J]. Nature Chemistry, 2015, 7(1): 19-29. doi: 10.1038/nchem.2085 [19] LIANG S S, YAN W Q, WU X, et al. Gel polymer electrolytes for lithium ion batteries: Fabrication, characterization and performance[J]. Solid State Ionics, 2018, 318: 2-18. doi: 10.1016/j.ssi.2017.12.023 [20] LIU Y J, ZHANG Z Q, FU Y B, et al. Investigation the electrochemical performance of Li1.2Ni0.2Mn0.6O2 cathode material with ZnAl2O4 coating for lithium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016, 685: 523-532. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.05.329 [21] HARPER G, SOMMERVILLE R, KENDRICK E, et al. Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles[J]. Nature, 2019, 575(7781): 75-86. doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5 [22] 欧秀芹, 孙新华, 程耀丽. 废锂离子电池的综合处理方法[J]. 天津化工, 2002, 16(4): 35-36. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1008-1267.2002.04.018 [23] ZHANG W, XU C, HE W, et al. A review on management of spent lithium ion batteries and strategy for resource recycling of all components from them[J]. Waste Management & Research, 2018, 36(2): 99-112. [24] ZHANG X, LI L, FAN E, et al. Toward sustainable and systematic recycling of spent rechargeable batteries[J]. Chemical Society Reviews, 2018, 47(19): 7239-7302. doi: 10.1039/C8CS00297E [25] HUANG B, PAN Z F, SU X Y, et al. Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: Recent advances and perspectives[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2018, 399: 274-286. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.07.116 [26] KIM H, JANG Y C, HWANG Y, et al. End-of-life batteries management and material flow analysis in South Korea[J]. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 2018, 12(3): 1-13. [27] BOXALL N J, KING S, CHENG K Y, et al. Urban mining of lithium-ion batteries in Australia: Current state and future trends[J]. Minerals Engineering, 2018, 128: 45-55. doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2018.08.030 [28] ZENG X L, LI J H, SINGH N. Recycling of spent lithium-ion battery: A critical review[J]. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2014, 44(10): 1129-1165. doi: 10.1080/10643389.2013.763578 [29] GUO Q S, SUN D W, CHENG J H, et al. Microwave processing techniques and their recent applications in the food industry[J]. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 2017, 67: 236-247. [30] ZHANG F, ZHOU T, LIU Y, et al. Microwave synthesis and actuation of shape memory polycaprolactone foams with high speed[J]. Scientific Reports, 2015, 5: 11152. doi: 10.1038/srep11152 [31] BRODIE G. Applications of Microwave Heating in Agricultural and Forestry Related Industries[M]. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech, 2012: 45-78. [32] HUANG Y F, CHIUEH P T, LO S L. A review on microwave pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass[J]. Sustainable Environment Research, 2016, 26(3): 103-109. doi: 10.1016/j.serj.2016.04.012 [33] SUN J, JIANG Z Y, WANG K, et al. Experimental study on microwave-SiC-assisted catalytic hydrogenation of phenol[J]. Energy & Fuels, 2019, 33(11): 11092-11100. [34] SUN J, WANG W L, LIU Z, et al. Recycling of waste printed circuit boards by microwave-induced pyrolysis and featured mechanical processing[J]. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2011, 50(20): 11763-11769. [35] SUN J, WANG W L, YUE Q Y. Review on microwave-matter interaction fundamentals and efficient microwave-associated heating strategies[J]. Materials, 2016, 9(4): 231. doi: 10.3390/ma9040231 [36] MISHRA R R, SHARMA A K. Microwave-material interaction phenomena: Heating mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in material processing[J]. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2016, 81: 78-97. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.10.035 [37] STUERGA D . Microwave-Material Interactions and Dielectric Properties, Key Ingredients for Mastery of Chemical Microwave Processes[M]. Weinhem: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co, 2006. [38] ZHAO Y Z, LIU B G, ZHANG L B, et al. Microwave-absorbing properties of cathode material during reduction roasting for spent lithium-ion battery recycling[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2020, 384: 121487. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121487 [39] PINDAR S, DHAWAN N. Microwave processing of spent coin cells for recycling of metallic values[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2021, 280: 124144. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124144 [40] HE F, CHEN J, CHEN G, et al. Microwave dielectric properties and reduction behavior of low-grade pyrolusite[J]. JOM, 2019, 71(11): 3909-3914. doi: 10.1007/s11837-019-03522-8 [41] LIU T, PANG Y, ZHU M, et al. Microporous Co@CoO nanoparticles with superior microwave absorption properties[J]. Nanoscale, 2014, 6(4): 2447-2454. doi: 10.1039/c3nr05238a [42] FARAG S, SOBHY A, AKYEL C, et al. Temperature profile prediction within selected materials heated by microwaves at 2.45GHz[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2012, 36: 360-369. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.10.049 [43] GUPTA M, LEONG E W W. Microwaves and Metals[M]. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. [44] JILES D. Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials[M]. CRC Press, 2015. [45] GIERAS J F, PIECH Z J, TOMCZUK B. Linear Synchronous Motors: Transportation and Automation Systems[M]. CRC Press, 2016. [46] MENÉNDEZ J A, ARENILLAS A, FIDALGO B, et al. Microwave heating processes involving carbon materials[J]. Fuel Processing Technology, 2010, 91(1): 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2009.08.021 [47] MONSEF-MIRZAI P, RAVINDRAN M, MCWHINNIE W R, et al. Rapid microwave pyrolysis of coal: Methodology and examination of the residual and volatile phases[J]. Fuel, 1995, 74(1): 20-27. doi: 10.1016/0016-2361(94)P4325-V [48] EL HARFI K, MOKHLISSE A, CHANÂA M B, et al. Pyrolysis of the Moroccan (Tarfaya) oil shales under microwave irradiation[J]. Fuel, 2000, 79(7): 733-742. doi: 10.1016/S0016-2361(99)00209-4 [49] FERNÁNDEZ Y, ARENILLAS A, DÍEZ M A, et al. Pyrolysis of glycerol over activated carbons for syngas production[J]. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2009, 84(2): 145-150. doi: 10.1016/j.jaap.2009.01.004 [50] MENÉNDEZ J A, MENÉNDEZ E M, GARCÍA A, et al. Thermal treatment of active carbons: A comparison between microwave and electrical hating[J]. Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, 1999, 34(3): 137-143. doi: 10.1080/08327823.1999.11688398 [51] FIDALGO B, ARENILLAS A, MENÉNDEZ J A. Influence of porosity and surface groups on the catalytic activity of carbon materials for the microwave-assisted CO2 reforming of CH4[J]. Fuel, 2010, 89(12): 4002-4007. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2010.06.015 [52] SUN J, WANG W L, YUE Q Y, et al. Review on microwave-metal discharges and their applications in energy and industrial processes[J]. Applied Energy, 2016, 175: 141-157. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.04.091 [53] DIAZ F, WANG Y, MOORTHY T, et al. Degradation mechanism of nickel-cobalt-aluminum (NCA) cathode material from spent lithium-ion batteries in microwave-assisted pyrolysis[J]. Metals, 2018, 8(8): 565. doi: 10.3390/met8080565 [54] BAJPAI R, WAGNER H D. Fast growth of carbon nanotubes using a microwave oven[J]. Carbon, 2015, 82: 327-336. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2014.10.077 [55] DIAZ F, FLERUS B, NAGRAJ S, et al. Comparative analysis about degradation mechanisms of printed circuit boards (PCBs) in slow and fast pyrolysis: The influence of heating speed[J]. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 2018, 4(2): 205-221. doi: 10.1007/s40831-018-0163-7 [56] NIE H, XU L, SONG D, et al. LiCoO2: Recycling from spent batteries and regeneration with solid state synthesis[J]. Green Chemistry, 2015, 17(2): 1276-1280. doi: 10.1039/C4GC01951B [57] CHOUBEY P K, KIM M S, SRIVASTAVA R R, et al. Advance review on the exploitation of the prominent energy-storage element: Lithium. Part I: From mineral and brine resources[J]. Minerals Engineering, 2016, 89: 119-137. doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2016.01.010 [58] LI J H, SHI P X, WANG Z F, et al. A combined recovery process of metals in spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Chemosphere, 2009, 77(8): 1132-1136. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.08.040 [59] HE L P, SUN S Y, SONG X F, et al. Recovery of cathode materials and Al from spent lithium-ion batteries by ultrasonic cleaning[J]. Waste Management, 2015, 46: 523-528. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2015.08.035 [60] ZENG X L, LI J H. Innovative application of ionic liquid to separate Al and cathode materials from spent high-power lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2014, 271: 50-56. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.02.001 [61] CHEN L, TANG X C, ZHANG Y, et al. Process for the recovery of cobalt oxalate from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2011, 108(1/2): 80-86. [62] WANG M M, TAN Q Y, LIU L L, et al. Efficient separation of aluminum foil and cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries using a low-temperature molten salt[J]. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2019, 7(9): 8287-8294. [63] SUN L, QIU K Q. Vacuum pyrolysis and hydrometallurgical process for the recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2011, 194: 378-384. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.07.114 [64] ZHANG T, HE Y Q, GE L H, et al. Characteristics of wet and dry crushing methods in the recycling process of spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2013, 240: 766-771. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.05.009 [65] 汪永威, 赵光金, 朱莉娜, 等. 一种微波热解处理废旧锂电池的方法: CN103247837A[P]. 2013-08-14. [66] 殷衡. 一种以等离子体技术回收三元电池正极材料的方法: CN108199107B[P]. 2020-02-18. [67] 刘云建, 胡启阳, 李新海, 等. 从不合格锂离子蓄电池中直接回收钴酸锂[J]. 电源技术, 2006, 30(4): 308-310. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1002-087X.2006.04.015 [68] GEORGI-MASCHLER T, FRIEDRICH B, WEYHE R, et al. Development of a recycling process for Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 207: 173-182. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.01.152 [69] LI J, WANG G X, XU Z M. Environmentally-friendly oxygen-free roasting/wet magnetic separation technology for in situ recycling cobalt, lithium carbonate and graphite from spent LiCoO2/graphite lithium batteries[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2016, 302: 97-104. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.09.050 [70] XIAO J F, LI J, XU Z M. Recycling metals from lithium ion battery by mechanical separation and vacuum metallurgy[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2017, 338: 124-131. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.05.024 [71] FAN E S, LI L, LIN J, et al. Low-temperature molten-salt-assisted recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2019, 7(19): 16144-16150. [72] HU J T, ZHANG J L, LI H X, et al. A promising approach for the recovery of high value-added metals from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2017, 351: 192-199. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.03.093 [73] LIU P C, XIAO L, CHEN Y F, et al. Recovering valuable metals from LiNixCoyMn1-x-yO2 cathode materials of spent lithium ion batteries via a combination of reduction roasting and stepwise leaching[J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2019, 783: 743-752. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.12.226 [74] LI J H, LI X H, HU Q Y, et al. Study of extraction and purification of Ni, Co and Mn from spent battery material[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2009, 99(1/2): 7-12. [75] JOULIÉ M, LAUCOURNET R, BILLY E. Hydrometallurgical process for the recovery of high value metals from spent lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide based lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2014, 247: 551-555. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.08.128 [76] ZHANG P W, YOKOYAMA T, ITABASHI O, et al. Hydrometallurgical process for recovery of metal values from spent lithium-ion secondary batteries[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 1998, 47(2/3): 259-271. [77] LI L, LU J, REN Y, et al. Ascorbic-acid-assisted recovery of cobalt and lithium from spent Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2012, 218: 21-27. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.06.068 [78] LI L, GE J, CHEN R J, et al. Environmental friendly leaching reagent for cobalt and lithium recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Waste Management, 2010, 30(12): 2615-2621. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2010.08.008 [79] LI L, ZHAI L Y, ZHANG X X, et al. Recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries by ultrasonic-assisted leaching process[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2014, 262: 380-385. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.04.013 [80] LI L, GE J, WU F, et al. Recovery of cobalt and lithium from spent lithium ion batteries using organic citric acid as leachant[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2010, 176(1/2/3): 288-293. [81] MISHRA D, KIM D J, RALPH D E, et al. Bioleaching of metals from spent lithium ion secondary batteries using Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans[J]. Waste Management, 2008, 28(2): 333-338. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2007.01.010 [82] XIN B P, ZHANG D, ZHANG X, et al. Bioleaching mechanism of Co and Li from spent lithium-ion battery by the mixed culture of acidophilic sulfur-oxidizing and iron-oxidizing bacteria[J]. Bioresource Technology, 2009, 100(24): 6163-6169. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2009.06.086 [83] ZENG G S, DENG X R, LUO S L, et al. A copper-catalyzed bioleaching process for enhancement of cobalt dissolution from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2012, 199/200: 164-169. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.10.063 [84] ZHAO Y Z, LIU B G, ZHANG L B, et al. Microwave pyrolysis of macadamia shells for efficiently recycling lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2020, 396: 122740. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122740 [85] YIXIN H, CHUNPENG L. Microwave-assisted carbothermic reduction of ilmenite[J]. Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters), 2009, 9(3): 164-170. [86] RU J J, HUA Y X, WANG D. Preparation and characterisation of TiN by microwave-assisted carbothermic reduction-nitridation in air atmosphere[J]. Advances in Applied Ceramics, 2017, 116(8): 468-476. doi: 10.1080/17436753.2017.1357292 [87] CHE X K, SU X Z, CHI R A, et al. Microwave assisted atmospheric acid leaching of nickel from laterite ore[J]. Rare Metals, 2010, 29(3): 327-332. doi: 10.1007/s12598-010-0058-7 [88] SAMOUHOS M, TAXIARCHOU M, HUTCHEON R, et al. Microwave reduction of a nickeliferous laterite ore[J]. Minerals Engineering, 2012, 34: 19-29. doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2012.04.005 [89] CHANG Y F, ZHAI X J, FU Y, et al. Phase transformation in reductive roasting of laterite ore with microwave heating[J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2008, 18(4): 969-973. doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(08)60167-3 [90] KRUESI P R, FRAHM JR V H. Process for the recovery of nickel, cobalt and manganese from their oxides and silicates: U.S. Patent No. 4, 311, 520 [P]. 1982-01-19. [91] ZHAO Y, GAO J M, YUE Y, et al. Extraction and separation of nickel and cobalt from saprolite laterite ore by microwave-assisted hydrothermal leaching and chemical deposition[J]. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy, and Materials, 2013, 20(7): 612-619. doi: 10.1007/s12613-013-0774-8 [92] LIU X X, ZHANG Z Y, WU Y P. Absorption properties of carbon black/silicon carbide microwave absorbers[J]. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2011, 42(2): 326-329. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2010.11.009 [93] PINDAR S, DHAWAN N. Recycling of mixed discarded lithium-ion batteries via microwave processing route[J]. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 2020, 25: e00157. doi: 10.1016/j.susmat.2020.e00157 [94] SUNIL S R, DHAWAN N. Thermal processing of spent Li-ion batteries for extraction of lithium and cobalt-manganese values[J]. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 2019, 72(12): 3035-3044. doi: 10.1007/s12666-019-01769-y [95] PINDAR S, DHAWAN N. Carbothermal reduction of spent mobile phones batteries for the recovery of lithium, cobalt, and manganese values[J]. JOM, 2019, 71(12): 4483-4491. doi: 10.1007/s11837-019-03799-9 [96] PINDAR S, DHAWAN N. Comparison of microwave and conventional indigenous carbothermal reduction for recycling of discarded lithium-ion batteries[J]. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 2020, 73(8): 2041-2051. doi: 10.1007/s12666-020-01956-2 [97] SUNIL S R, VISHVAKARMA S, BARNWAL A, et al. Processing of spent Li-ion batteries for recovery of cobalt and lithium values[J]. JOM, 2019, 71(12): 4659-4665. doi: 10.1007/s11837-019-03540-6 [98] NATARAJAN S, ANANTHARAJ S, TAYADE R J, et al. Recovered spinel MnCo2O4 from spent lithium-ion batteries for enhanced electrocatalytic oxygen evolution in alkaline medium[J]. Dalton Transaction, 2017, 46(41): 14382-14392. doi: 10.1039/C7DT02613G [99] XI G X, ZHAO T T, WANG L, et al. Effect of doping rare earths on magnetostriction characteristics of CoFe2O4 prepared from spent Li-ion batteries[J]. Physica B: Condensed Matter, 2018, 534: 76-82. doi: 10.1016/j.physb.2018.01.036 [100] MOURA M N, BARRADA R V, ALMEIDA J R, et al. Synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic properties of nanostructured CoFe2O4 recycled from spent Li-ion batteries[J]. Chemosphere, 2017, 182: 339-347. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.05.036 [101] FERREIRA D A, PRADOS L M Z, MAJUSTE D, et al. Hydrometallurgical separation of aluminium, cobalt, copper and lithium from spent Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2009, 187(1): 238-246. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.10.077 [102] JHA M K, KUMARI A, JHA A K, et al. Recovery of lithium and cobalt from waste lithium ion batteries of mobile phone[J]. Waste Management, 2013, 33(9): 1890-1897. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2013.05.008 [103] LI L, CHEN R J, SUN F, et al. Preparation of LiCoO2 films from spent lithium-ion batteries by a combined recycling process[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2011, 108(3/4): 220-225. [104] FAN E S, LI L, ZHANG X X, et al. Selective recovery of Li and Fe from spent lithium-ion batteries by an environmentally friendly mechanochemical approach[J]. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2018, 6(8): 11029-11035. [105] WANG M M, ZHANG C C, ZHANG F S. An environmental benign process for cobalt and lithium recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries by mechanochemical approach[J]. Waste Management, 2016, 51: 239-244. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2016.03.006 [106] LI J G, ZHAO R S, HE X M, et al. Preparation of LiCoO2 cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Ionics, 2009, 15(1): 111-113. doi: 10.1007/s11581-008-0238-8 [107] PATIL D, CHIKKAMATH S, KENY S, et al. Rapid dissolution and recovery of Li and Co from spent LiCoO2 using mild organic acids under microwave irradiation[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 2020, 256: 109935. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109935 [108] ZOU H Y, GRATZ E, APELIAN D, et al. A novel method to recycle mixed cathode materials for lithium ion batteries[J]. Green Chemistry, 2013, 15(5): 1183. doi: 10.1039/c3gc40182k [109] SA Q N, GRATZ E, HEELAN J A, et al. Synthesis of diverse LiNixMnyCozO2 cathode materials from lithium ion battery recovery stream[J]. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 2016, 2(3): 248-256. doi: 10.1007/s40831-016-0052-x [110] SHI Y, CHEN G, LIU F, et al. Resolving the compositional and structural defects of degraded LiNixCoyMnzO2 particles to directly regenerate high-performance lithium-ion battery cathodes[J]. ACS Energy Letters, 2018, 3(7): 1683-1692. doi: 10.1021/acsenergylett.8b00833 [111] ZHANG X H, CAO H B, XIE Y B, et al. A closed-loop process for recycling LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 from the cathode scraps of lithium-ion batteries: Process optimization and kinetics analysis[J]. Separation and Purification Technology, 2015, 150: 186-195. doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2015.07.003 [112] HE L P, SUN S Y, SONG X F, et al. Leaching process for recovering valuable metals from the LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Waste Management, 2017, 64: 171-181. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2017.02.011 [113] MESHRAM P, PANDEY B D, MANKHAND T R. Recovery of valuable metals from cathodic active material of spent lithium ion batteries: Leaching and kinetic aspects[J]. Waste Management, 2015, 45: 306-313. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2015.05.027 [114] GOLMOHAMMADZADEH R, RASHCHI F, VAHIDI E. Recovery of lithium and cobalt from spent lithium-ion batteries using organic acids: Process optimization and kinetic aspects[J]. Waste Management, 2017, 64: 244-254. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2017.03.037 [115] FU Y P, HE Y Q, YANG Y, et al. Microwave reduction enhanced leaching of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2020, 832: 154920. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.154920 [116] LI L, BIAN Y F, ZHANG X X, et al. Economical recycling process for spent lithium-ion batteries and macro- and micro-scale mechanistic study[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2018, 377: 70-79. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.12.006 [117] LANNOO S, VILAS-BOAS A, SADEGHI S M, et al. An environmentally friendly closed loop process to recycle raw materials from spent alkaline batteries[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019, 236: 117612. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117612 [118] KARIMI G R, ROWSON N A, HEWITT C J. Bioleaching of copper via iron oxidation from chalcopyrite at elevated temperatures[J]. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 2010, 88(1): 21-25. doi: 10.1016/j.fbp.2009.06.005 [119] SMITH S L, GRAIL B M, JOHNSON D B. Reductive bioprocessing of cobalt-bearing limonitic laterites[J]. Minerals Engineering, 2017, 106: 86-90. doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2016.09.009 [120] HOREH N B, MOUSAVI S M, SHOJAOSADATI S A. Bioleaching of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion mobile phone batteries using Aspergillus Niger[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2016, 320: 257-266. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.04.104 [121] XIN Y Y, GUO X M, CHEN S, et al. Bioleaching of valuable metals Li, Co, Ni and Mn from spent electric vehicle Li-ion batteries for the purpose of recovery[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 116: 249-258. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.01.001 [122] POLLMANN K, RAFF J, MERROUN M, et al. Metal binding by bacteria from uranium mining waste piles and its technological applications[J]. Biotechnology Advances, 2006, 24(1): 58-68. doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2005.06.002 [123] MACASKIE L E, MIKHEENKO I P, YONG P, et al. Today's wastes, tomorrow's materials for environmental protection[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2010, 104(3/4): 483-487. [124] YEMIŞ O, MAZZA G. Acid-catalyzed conversion of xylose, xylan and straw into furfural by microwave-assisted reaction[J]. Bioresource Technology, 2011, 102(15): 7371-7378. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.04.050 [125] RAMASAMY S, MOGHTADERI B. Dielectric properties of typical Australian wood-based biomass materials at microwave frequency[J]. Energy & Fuels, 2010, 24(8): 4534-4548. [126] SAIT H H, SALEMA A A. Microwave dielectric characterization of Saudi Arabian date palm biomass during pyrolysis and at industrial frequencies[J]. Fuel, 2015, 161: 239-247. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2015.08.058 [127] TATEISHI K, DU BOULAY D, ISHIZAWA N, et al. Structural disorder along the lithium diffusion pathway in cubically stabilized lithium manganese spinel II. Molecular dynamics calculation[J]. Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 2003, 174(1): 175-181. doi: 10.1016/S0022-4596(03)00207-X [128] YOON W S, IANNOPOLLO S, GREY C P, et al. Local structure and cation ordering in O3 lithium nickel manganese oxides with stoichiometry Li[NixMn(2–x)/3Li(1–2x)/3]O2[J]. Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters, 2004, 7(7): A167. doi: 10.1149/1.1737711 [129] GADJOV H, GOROVA M, KOTZEVA V, et al. LiMn2O4 prepared by different methods at identical thermal treatment conditions: structural, morphological and electrochemical characteristics[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2004, 134(1): 110-117. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.03.027 [130] RODRÍGUEZ-CARVAJAL J, ROUSSE G, MASQUELIER C, et al. Electronic crystallization in a lithium battery material: Columnar ordering of electrons and holes in the Spinel LiMn2O4[J]. Physical Review Letters, 1998, 81(21): 4660. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.4660 [131] GILBERT J A, SHKROB I A, ABRAHAM D P. Transition metal dissolution, ion migration, electrocatalytic reduction and capacity loss in lithium-ion full cells[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2017, 164(2): A389-A399. doi: 10.1149/2.1111702jes [132] MENG X Q, HAO J, CAO H B, et al. Recycling of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries using mechanochemical activation and solid-state sintering[J]. Waste Management, 2019, 84: 54-63. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.034 [133] 张维民, 张娜, 张铁柱, 等. 废弃电池回收再生制备锂电池三元正极材料的方法: CN110265659A[P]. 2019-09-20. [134] 刘静静, 仇卫华, 赵海雷, 等. 锂离子电池用层状LiMnO2基正极材料的研究进展[J]. 硅酸盐学报, 2005, 33(9): 1127-1132. doi: 10.3321/j.issn:0454-5648.2005.09.016 [135] SHI Y, ZHANG M H, MENG Y S, et al. Ambient-pressure relithiation of degraded LixNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 (0<x<1) via eutectic solutions for direct regeneration of lithium-ion battery cathodes[J]. Advanced Energy Materials, 2019, 9(20): 1900454. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201900454 [136] KIM D S, SOHN J S, LEE C K, et al. Simultaneous separation and renovation of lithium cobalt oxide from the cathode of spent lithium ion rechargeable batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2004, 132(1/2): 145-149. [137] CONTESTABILE M, PANERO S, SCROSATI B. A laboratory-scale lithium-ion battery recycling process[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2001, 92(1/2): 65-69. [138] LIU Y J, HU Q Y, LI X H, et al. Recycle and synthesis of LiCoO2 from incisors bound of Li-ion batteries[J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2006, 16(4): 956-959. doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(06)60359-2 [139] SA Q N, GRATZ E, HE M N, et al. Synthesis of high performance LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 from lithium ion battery recovery stream[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2015, 282: 140-145. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.02.046 [140] LEE C K, RHEE K I. Preparation of LiCoO2 from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2002, 109(1): 17-21. doi: 10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00037-X [141] LEE C K, RHEE K I. Reductive leaching of cathodic active materials from lithium ion battery wastes[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 2003, 68(1/2/3): 5-10. [142] BALAJI S, MUTHARASU D, SANKARA SUBRAMANIAN N, et al. A review on microwave synthesis of electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Ionics, 2009, 15(6): 765-777. doi: 10.1007/s11581-009-0350-4 [143] LI J, WANG Y, WANG L H, et al. A facile recycling and regeneration process for spent LiFePO4 batteries[J]. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2019, 30(15): 14580-14588. doi: 10.1007/s10854-019-01830-y [144] LI X L, ZHANG J, SONG D W, et al. Direct regeneration of recycled cathode material mixture from scrapped LiFePO4 batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2017, 345: 78-84. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.01.118 [145] BAO S J, LIANG Y Y, LI H L. Synthesis and electrochemical properties of LiMn2O4 by microwave-assisted Sol-gel method[J]. Materials Letters, 2005, 59(28): 3761-3765. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2005.07.012 [146] TANG X, WANG R, REN Y F, et al. Effective regeneration of scrapped LiFePO4 material from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Materials Science, 2020, 55(27): 13036-13048. doi: 10.1007/s10853-020-04907-w [147] YAN H W, HUANG X J, LI H, et al. Electrochemical study on LiCoO2 synthesized by microwave energy[J]. Solid State Ionics, 1998, 113-115: 11-15. [148] ELUMALAI P, VASAN H N, MUNICHANDRAIAH N. Microwave synthesis and electrochemical properties of LiCo1−xMxO2 (M = Al and Mg) cathodes for Li-ion rechargeable batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2004, 125(1): 77-84. doi: 10.1016/S0378-7753(03)00815-2 [149] LIU H X, HU C, ZHU X J, et al. Solid chemical reaction in microwave and millimeter-wave fields for the syntheses of LiMn2O4 compound[J]. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2004, 88(2/3): 290-294. [150] FU Y P, LIN C H, SU Y H, et al. Electrochemical properties of LiMn2O4 synthesized by the microwave-induced combustion method[J]. Ceramics International, 2004, 30(7): 1953-1959. doi: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2003.12.183 [151] CUI T, HUA N, HAN Y, et al. Preparation and electrochemical properties of LiMn2O4 by a rheological-phase-assisted microwave synthesis method[J]. Inorganic Materials, 2008, 44(5): 542-548. doi: 10.1134/S002016850805021X [152] HIGUCHI M, KATAYAMA K, AZUMA Y, et al. Synthesis of LiFePO4 cathode material by microwave processing[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2003, 119-121: 258-261. [153] LI J, JIN Y L, ZHANG X G, et al. Microwave solid-state synthesis of spinel Li4Ti5O12 nanocrystallites as anode material for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Solid State Ionics, 2007, 178(29/30): 1590-1594. [154] FU Y P, SU Y H, WU S H, et al. LiMn2−yMyO4 (M = Cr, Co) cathode materials synthesized by the microwave-induced combustion for lithium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2006, 426(1/2): 228-234. [155] FU Y P, SU Y H, LIN C H. Comparison of microwave-induced combustion and solid-state reaction for synthesis of LiMn2−xCrxO4 powders and their electrochemical properties[J]. Solid State Ionics, 2004, 166(1/2): 137-146. [156] LEE K S, MYUNG S T, PRAKASH J, et al. Optimization of microwave synthesis of Li[Ni0.4Co0.2Mn0.4]O2 as a positive electrode material for lithium batteries[J]. Electrochimica Acta, 2008, 53(7): 3065-3074. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2007.11.042 [157] 赵新兵, 周斌, 曹高劭, 等. 一种从磷酸铁锂废旧电池中回收制备磷酸铁锂的方法: CN102751548A[P]. 2012-10-24. [158] LI F X, QIU W H, HU H Y, et al. Electrochemical performance of LiFePO4 synthesized by microwave processing as lithium battery cathode[J]. Chinese Journal of Power Sources, 2005, 29(6): 346. [159] AMINE K. Olivine LiCoPO4 as 4.8 V electrode material for lithium batteries[J]. Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters, 1999, 3(4): 178. doi: 10.1149/1.1390994 [160] OKADA S, SAWA S, EGASHIRA M, et al. Cathode properties of phospho-olivine LiMPO4 for lithium secondary batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2001, 97-98: 430-432. doi: 10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00631-0 [161] LLORIS J M, PÉREZ VICENTE C, TIRADO J L. Improvement of the electrochemical performance of LiCoPO4 5 V material using a novel synthesis procedure[J]. Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters, 2002, 5(10): A234. doi: 10.1149/1.1507941 [162] LUDWIG J, MARINO C, HAERING D, et al. Morphology-controlled microwave-assisted solvothermal synthesis of high-performance LiCoPO4 as a high-voltage cathode material for Li-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources, 2017, 342: 214-223. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.12.059 [163] LUDWIG J, GEPRÄGS S, NORDLUND D, et al. Co11Li[(OH)5O][(PO3OH)(PO4)5], a lithium-stabilized, mixed-valent cobalt(II, III) hydroxide phosphate framework[J]. Inorganic Chemistry, 2017, 56(18): 10950-10961. doi: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.7b01152 [164] ZAINI M A A, KAMARUDDIN M J. Critical issues in microwave-assisted activated carbon preparation[J]. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2013, 101: 238-241. doi: 10.1016/j.jaap.2013.02.003 [165] CHATTERJEE S, BASAK T, DAS S K. Microwave driven convection in a rotating cylindrical cavity: A numerical study[J]. Journal of Food Engineering, 2007, 79(4): 1269-1279. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.04.039 [166] DATTA A K, HU W. Quality optimization of dielectric heating processes[J]. Food Technology, 1992, 46(12): 53-56. [167] ROUSSY G, JASSM S, THIEBAUT J M T. Modeling of a fluidized bed irradiatel by a single or a Mult1Mode electric microwave field distribution[J]. Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, 1995, 30(3): 178-187. doi: 10.1080/08327823.1995.11688274 [168] BASAK T, AYAPPA K G. Role of length scales on microwave thawing dynamics in 2D cylinders[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2002, 45(23): 4543-4559. doi: 10.1016/S0017-9310(02)00171-0 [169] CHA-UM W, RATTANADECHO P, PAKDEE W. Experimental and numerical analysis of microwave heating of water and oil using a rectangular wave guide: Influence of sample sizes, positions, and microwave power[J]. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 2011, 4(4): 544-558. doi: 10.1007/s11947-009-0187-x [170] CHA-UM W, RATTANADECHO P, PAKDEE W. Experimental analysis of microwave heating of dielectric materials using a rectangular wave guide (MODE: TE10) (Case study: Water layer and saturated porous medium)[J]. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 2009, 33(3): 472-481. doi: 10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2008.11.008 [171] MORIWAKI S, MACHIDA M, TATSUMOTO H, et al. A study on thermal runaway of poly(vinyl chloride) by microwave irradiation[J]. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2006, 76(1/2): 238-242. [172] GUPTA N, MIDHA V, BALAKOTAIAH V, et al. Bifurcation analysis of thermal runaway in microwave heating of ceramics[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 1999, 146(12): 4659-4665. doi: 10.1149/1.1392690 [173] KRIEGSMANN G A. Thermal runaway in microwave heated ceramics: A one-dimensional model[J]. Journal of Applied Physics, 1992, 71(4): 1960-1966. doi: 10.1063/1.351191 [174] VRIEZINGA C A, SÁNCHEZ-PEDREÑO S, GRASMAN J. Thermal runaway in microwave heating: A mathematical analysis[J]. Applied Mathematical Modelling, 2002, 26(11): 1029-1038. doi: 10.1016/S0307-904X(02)00058-6 [175] LIU B. The microwave heating of two-dimensional slabs with small Arrhenius absorptivity[J]. IMA Journal of Applied Mathematics, 1999, 62(2): 137-166. doi: 10.1093/imamat/62.2.137 [176] ROUSSY G, BENNANI A, THIEBAUT J M. Temperature runaway of microwave irradiated materials[J]. Journal of Applied Physics, 1987, 62(4): 1167-1170. doi: 10.1063/1.339666